What exactly happened between the world and God at the moment of Jesus’ death? In the Christian tradition, there are various ways people have answered this question. The term for this branch of theology is called atonement theology.

I heard it once said that we all know that atonement happens–God saves us… but we aren’t exactly sure on the “how” God does this exactly!

As with many theological issues, Christians often disagree with one another, especially with questions like this one. Likewise, there are about three major approaches to answer the bolded question raised above. Depending on how you understand atonement, there may be even as many as ten theories! But for the sake of simplicity, we’ll explore the three broadest ones.

Keep in mind that people find justifications for all three in the scriptures and church tradition. And each clearly have weaknesses. Here’s a (very) brief overview of atonement theories…

Ransom Theory

This atonement theology argues that humanity was held captive by the forces of evil. Satan had “captured” us, so to speak, ever since the fall of humanity with Adam and Eve. In a sense, we were held hostage and doomed to death. Jesus paid some sort of price for us, freeing us from Satan’s grasp. The cross and the empty tomb means God won against evil, thus providing salvation for all creation.

Jesus offered some support for this view in Mark 10:45- “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” This was also very popular view in the early church, with phrasing such as Jesus “descended into hell” included in some versions of the Apostles’ Creed (the implication meaning he is rescued the dead from Satan). Also, as I’ve written on before, paintings like the Anastasis depict Christ trampling Satan and destroying the locks on the gates of hell, rescuing people from death:

Critics of the ransom theory are skeptical about the idea of ransom, as if God owed something to Satan. Other may argue that Satan does not “own” anything or anyone, and that God alone is all-powerful. If someone also believes God desires to punish others, chances are they wouldn’t fall into this category, too.

Substitution Theory

This view on atonement theology is also sometimes called penal substitution, implying a focus on crime and punishment. The view presupposes that God was to punish humanity, but Jesus “stepped in” and took our place. Likewise, God punished Jesus on the cross for our sin. We all stand before God with countless faults due to our brokenness. God demands we pay for this sin. Instead of us paying the price, Jesus volunteered in our place. A substitutionary theorist would argue that this simply fits in with an interpretation of Old Testament regulations on sacrifice–blood must be shed in order to appease God’s wrath. Because sacrifices of old were imperfect, God had to offer himself to satisfy this need for justice.

There aren’t many gospel scriptures supporting this view. Instead, proponents look to passages like Isaiah 53 about a prophesied “suffering servant” bearing the sins of others.

There are several noteworthy problems with penal substitution. For starters, many argue that it makes God out to be bloodthirsty and vengeful, rather than radically gracious. God seems eerily similar to pagan gods requiring tribute. Another criticism is that the substitution view is rather self-centered. We are the ones who enjoy salvation, and Jesus is only a means to this end (what about Jesus’ life and moral example?). Furthermore, some Christians argue that substitution theology has contributed to abuse throughout history, where people assume physical violence is an acceptable act against a child or spouse.

Moral Example Theory

This is another viewpoint on atonement, but really focuses on Jesus’ moral actions throughout his life and ministry. It asserts that Jesus provided us the perfect moral example of how to live. As Christians, our duty is to clearly follow in the footsteps of Jesus. Jesus died in order to provide humanity an example of what perfect love looks like. Instead of taking up arms against his enemies, Jesus asked God to forgive them.

Moral example proponents argue that this also applies to Jesus’ obedience as highlighted in Philippians 2:8- “And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to death—even death on a cross!”

Critics of the moral theory argue that this atonement theology does not adequately address our sinful condition. If Jesus’ purpose on the cross was to just give us a good example, why do other parts of scripture explicitly speak of ransom, atonement, salvation, and so forth?

As you probably realize, there are many pro’s and con’s to each theory. Personally, I’m a huge fan of the ransom and moral example theories. I think the substitutionary one is too self-centered and neglects the broader purpose of Jesus’ ministry.

Nevertheless, it is still important to consider what atonement means. We might be assured in God’s redemption of creation, but we are likely less sure of the specific “how” of the matter!

Pastors often occupy a unique space in the world. A pastor serves all different kinds of people in varying stages of life. Everyone tends to experience conflict at one time or another, with friends, family, and neighbors. For instance, one day a pastor might spend time praying with and giving advice to a parent struggling with a rebellious teenager. The next day might involve trying to minister to the wayward youth. It is frequently a balancing act to ensure you serve absolutely everyone when they need it.

I’ve noticed this tension especially with prison ministry over the years, both in Arkansas and Texas. Sometimes pastoral conversations happen with people who were victims of crime. And of course, going to a prison consists to trying to minister to perpetrators of those crimes–thieves, addicts, domestic abusers, rapists, child predators, or even murderers.

This has sometimes been a challenge for me. Initially, I was intimidated by the context of a jail or prison, and would wonder if I was truly making a difference. Even in some moments, I would feel that temptation to judge someone else. After all, my only encounter with the legal system had been a couple of traffic tickets!

But God worked in my life in such a way to remind me that absolutely everyone needs Jesus Christ. There are no perfect people, and many times, those who are incarcerated actually need him the most! Many of the prisoners I’ve gotten to know through various programs grew up in severely broken or abusive homes. That childhood brokenness created even more brokenness as they entered into adulthood. Preaching God’s forgiveness was a way to break these toxic cycles.

I think the Methodist tradition (in its best moments, of course) has a really good track record on ministering to nearly everyone. John Wesley was known for preaching in prisons (and happened to get in trouble for it with the religious establishment!). The UMC today advocates against the use of the death penalty, instead believing that we should leave judgment up to God, and that we are called to love everyone. Methodist churches regularly support programs to give bibles to inmates and send volunteers on life-changing Kairos weekends. We should never forget that everyone needs God’s love… and that includes criminals and prison inmates, too.

This brings us to the repentant man on the cross next to Jesus. It’s difficult to know exactly what kind of criminal this man was. Some bible historians allege he was a murderer. Others believe he could have just been a common thief. Another option might be he disturbed the peace, like Jesus, and so the Romans saw him as a threat to execute.

There’s such a stark contrast in the final moments of Jesus’ death with the criminal and the surrounding crowd. The soldiers, priests, and authorities are all mocking Jesus. Yet of all people, it was a criminal who embraced God’s grace in that moment.

Jesus clearly offered forgiveness to the offender on the cross. That is a difficult standard for us to follow, but it is still at the core of the gospel. God has forgiven us, and likewise we must work to forgive others by God’s grace. We are literally no better than our fellow brother or sister who may have stumbled with a sin we’ve not.

Forgiveness isn’t supposed to come naturally. If you struggle with forgiving someone, that is perfectly normal. It is human nature to hold onto grudges and nurture hurt instead of letting things go.

The point I want to make, however, is that even though forgiveness is difficult, we should still ask God for the strength to forgive others. Even if you’ve been the victim of some sort of injustice (whether a prosecuted crime or not), its still important to seek God’s healing. Forgiveness might not happen overnight, but it is so important to never hold on to hatred. The criminal on the cross teaches us that no one is beyond God’s reach.

Barbara Brown Taylor is an Episcopal priest and extremely talented preacher, and I’ve learned a lot from her books and sermons as I have developed as a pastor over the years. This week for the church blog, I was reflecting on a sermon she had published about John 19 with Jesus leading John to care for his mother Mary.

Here’s her insight into the topic:

That Jesus placed his mother in the care of his disciple is our clue that she is a widow. Although Joseph is mentioned twice by name, he never shows up in John’s gospel at all. He has presumably died by the time Jesus reaches adulthood, which makes Mary an ‘almana,’ or widow, whose status depends on the surviving members of her husband’s household. When Jesus dies, she will belong to no one. She will be responsible to and for herself.

If she were a wealthy woman, this might be good news to her, but she is not. It is far more likely that she will eat other people’s leftovers for the rest of her life, with no father, no husband or son to protect her from the cruel things people say and do.

So it is merciful of Jesus to give her a new son. But it is also merciful of him to give that son a new mother, especially this one. Mary cannot be more than fifty years old when her son is crucified–younger than Sarah was when she gave birth to the nation of Israel; younger than Anna was when she recognized the redeemer of Jerusalem in a baby boy named Jesus.

When the beloved disciple takes Mary home, and when the other disciples come crawling out from under their rocks, they will find themselves in the presence of someone whose contact with the Holy Spirit has been far more intimate than theirs. She has seen things they have only heard about. She has felt things inside of her that they cannot even imagine. Perhaps that is why she stayed put by her son while they fled. Perhaps that is what allowed her to look full into the ruined face that no one but her (and her new son) could bear to see.

While the principalities and powers believe they are tearing his family apart, Jesus is quietly putting it together again: this mother with this son, this past with this future. Although his enemies will succeed in killing him, he will leave no orphans behind. At the foot of the cross, the mother of the old becomes the mother of the new. The beloved disciple becomes her new beloved son. “And from that hour the disciple took her into his own home.”

I thought Taylor painted such a powerful picture of how Christ offered hope, even though all seemed hopeless. Even when it looked like good was beaten by evil, Mary’s life still is evidence God was working to bring redemption.